Category: Graduate Work

The DIER and DIEW models as they relate to Attentional Control

Introduction

The simple view of reading is a seemingly straightforward, validated, and utilitarian way of understanding what is required to achieve reading success (Protopapas Et al., 2012). In isolation it helps us to understand some of the key components for learning to read. These are divided into two main categories – word recognition (which requires phonological awareness, orthographic mapping, and decoding as component skills), and language comprehension (which is considerably more nebulous but requires at minimum background knowledge, vocabulary, language structure, verbal reasoning, and literacy knowledge). However, as reading research continues, it has become clear that there are relationships between these factors, as well as other variables external to these, that are at play when it comes to reading success. It is from this breadth of research that the DIER, or Direct and Indirect Effects model of Reading, was derived (Kim, 2020). This model seeks to account for the relationships between a variety of factors that impact reading success including those described in the simple view of reading, as well as executive functioning skills, socioemotional state, and theory of mind.

The establishment of these additional factors as being primarily indirect mediators of reading success has led to subsequent research that connects literacy difficulties to difficulties with attentional control specifically. These difficulties in sustaining attention are often seen in people who have adhd, as well as those who have experienced substantial trauma, and autistic people, as described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). As such, it is of interest to both researchers and practitioners of literacy instruction and intervention to understand the role of attentional control as both a variable in the broader understanding of literacy success.

The DIER model is increasingly well supported by strong data and is unique in its ability to consider variables directly and indirectly but also as possibly hierarchical, dynamic, and/or interactional (Kim, 2020). This positions the DIER model as a perfect framework for understanding how attentional difficulties may impact student reading progress over time. As such, I have chosen to outline in this brief the current research on DIER (as well as its counterpart in the world of writing DIEW), as it relates to attentional control.

Article 1: Toward Integrative Reading Science: The Direct and Indirect Effects Model of Reading

In a study of 200 first grade students in South Korea, Kim seeks to solidify her previous tentative DIER model, using multivariate analysis to understand the relationships between a broad variety of factors that have been found to impact students in the process of learning to read (Kim, 2020). This body of knowledge comes from a wide variety of disciplines including school psychology, neuroscience, speech language pathology, linguistics, clinical psychology, and pedagogical studies. As such, the relationship between these variables had not previously been well studied as these fields were often operating independently. In addition to considering the well established strands proposed in the simple view of reading (as described in the introduction above), the DIER model adds questions around perspective taking, executive functioning, attentional control, and socioemotions. For the purposes of this brief, these later variables were the impetus for considering how DIER may present a way of understanding reading difficulties in students who also have adhd and other conditions that impact executive functioning alongside other cognitive and emotional skills.

Ultimately, the study further validated the importance of the skills described in the simple view of reading, with moderate direct effects seen as a result of text reading fluency, word reading, vocabulary, listening comprehension, and grammatical knowledge. Of interest, statistically significant mild or moderate effects were also seen as a result of working memory, theory of mind, and higher order cognition skills including attentional control. Additionally some of these relationships were found to be hierarchical, for instance with word reading being a strong and direct factor in successful reading fluency, while other relationships were found to be interactional with the impact of one skill impacting another and vice versa (this is, for example, the case with theory of mind and listening comprehension). Most language and cognitive skills were found to not be directly related to strong reading comprehension, however indirect effects were common. By way of example, working memory was found to be predictive of vocabulary and general knowledge (which are in turn important component skills of reading comprehension).

This research is a strong initial confirmation of DIER as a framework for understanding the breadth of variables that impact reading. The primary strengths of this article lie in the large initial sample of 200 students, the expansive and well validated foundational research of many other fields that underlie the proposed model, and the diligent multivariate statistical analysis in use that attempts to take into account a wide variety of potential impacts each variable might have as either proximal or distal factors in the big picture of how students learn to read. There are some weaknesses, which are well acknowledged in the article. Of note, the population studied was quite homogenous, with the majority of the students being middle class or low middle class. Additionally, the research was conducted with Korean speaking students – it is suggested however that while the strength of various variables may be different due to linguistic and orthographic differences, it is unlikely that these differences would be sufficient to invalidate the presence of any of the statistically significant factors found in the study.

Given the established factors and the well developed cross-disciplinary research underlying the DIER model, this paper successfully establishes DIER as an excellent framework for further exploration of reading success and its many variables. In particular, as mentioned before, the inclusion of higher level cognitive processes and socioemotional status as contributing factors in the process of literacy acquisition makes this model exceptionally useful for understanding literacy with regards to divergent neurotypes that are impacted by differences and deficits in attentional control. As such, this area warrants further research to better describe how these direct and indirect effects may be affecting these learners. Additionally, DIER is a successful framework however future research might be well positioned to explore how this framework might be applied to instructional strategies and interventions that account for the wide expanse of contributing factors identified and described in DIER.

Article 2: Contributions of attentional control, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and reading skills to performance on a fourth-grade state writing test

Per the Direct and Indirect model of Reading established above, executive functioning, attentional control, and socioemotion, are moderate predictors of reading success as indirect (distal) factors on the primary mechanisms required for successful literacy. This paper builds upon the DIER model by specifically considering how attentional control and hyperactivity-impulsivity (as seen for example in people with adhd) may be related to reading skills as well as what directionality those relationships might take, offering “The hypothesized mechanism is that attentional control directly impacts word reading during foundational academic years and that it indirectly impacts subsequent reading comprehension via word reading abilities.” The study additionally considers potential impact on writing skills, in particular hypothesizing that, “the long-term impact of attentional control on writing may be indirect via language and literacy mediators.”(Reid Et al., 2023)

This research made use of prior data collected with over 400 fourth grade students, adding additionally to the body of knowledge on reading success by considering students in their middle to late elementary years. This is in contrast to the bulk of reading research which is often focused on the primary years. Researchers specifically asked the following questions: “1. What is the contribution of attentional control to word reading, reading comprehension, and overall writing? 2. What is the contribution of hyperactivity-impulsivity to word reading, reading comprehension, and overall writing? 3. How does word reading relate to reading comprehension and overall writing? And 4. How does reading comprehension relate to overall writing?”

Results showed that attentional control is strongly related to word level reading, overall reading comprehension, and a range of writing skills. Hyperactive-impulsivity is not independently predictive of these skills. This is notable for its pedagogical implications given that students who struggle with attention deficits are often overlooked in contrast to their peers who have hyperactive or impulsive behaviors that may present as more externally disruptive. Despite the more subtle external presentation of attention deficits, it is important to understand the results of the analysis in this paper as they relate to potential literacy difficulties that could impact students across the lifespan.

The sample size of 419 in this study is a relative strength as it establishes a strong basis for meaningful statistical analysis. The sample included considerable diversity of ethnicity and socioeconomic status but was limited to urban and near urban settings which is in turn a relative weakness. An additional limitation to note is that the SWAN measure (used to assess attentional control and hyperactivity-impulsivity) was administered by a single teacher of each student, with interrater reliability not commented on though this is a previously well validated measure.

From the outcomes described in this article and given what we know about supportive strategies for attentional control in students with ADHD (and potentially other mental health or developmental conditions that impact attentional control), further research may be warranted into how literacy instruction may be improved by both universal design principles and targeted intervention to improve attentional control and increase the success of students as they learn to read and write.

Article 3: Executive Functions and Morphological Awareness Explain the Shared Variance between Word Reading and Listening Comprehension

Amidst the growing body of research supporting DIER as a way of understanding reading, an interesting find emerged that complicates the simple view of reading’s silo between language comprehension and word recognition – word reading and listening comprehension are not independent but related – so what explains the relationship between the two? In this article, Kim explores the role of executive functions as they relate to the acquisition of both essential elements of literacy acquisition (2023). The primary question offered here is whether executive functions and emergent literacy skills predict shared variance between word reading and listening comprehension. This article is thus relevant to the broader context of this brief as attentional control, working memory, and morphological knowledge are proposed as the primary mediating variables. And as previously noted, attentional control and working memory are both known to be impaired in students with ADHD or other conditions such as trauma or autism related sensory processing issues.

The outcome of this study of 372 English speaking first grade students was such that the relationship between word reading and listening comprehension are understood to be entirely mediated by the component skills of word reading, in particular morphology, in combination with executive functioning skills – specifically attentional control and working memory. This confirms the premise of the research, that executive functions are key to early acquisition of requisite early language and literacy skills that lead to successful reading.

This study, like the one above, had its greatest strength in its overall diversity with good gender parity, reasonable diversity of ethnic background (The majority were White children (60%) and African American children (26%) while the rest were composed of 6% multiracial children, 6% Hispanic children, and 2% Asian American children), diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, and over and above the previous article this research also included a broader variety of settings including urban and semirural areas. Some limitations were however present, including an early elementary sample group that may not provide much insight into impacts beyond the primary years, and a data set with substantially missing information (orthographic pattern recognition – 29% of the data for this set was missing and it was found in statistical analysis to not be a random absence).

Despite these relatively mild limitations, this article adds substantially to the body of evidence supporting the indirect impacts of executive functions, in particular attentional control, on successful reading progress. This invites further educational research on how we might improve outcomes for neurodivergent students who struggle with attentional control and working memory when it comes to the base reading skills outlined in the simple view of reading.

Implications for Practice and Further Learning

DIER (and its companion model, DIEW) offers a nuanced way of understanding the broad range of variables that impact literacy acquisition, which is a much needed and helpful addition to the current body of science with regards to reading. In particular, the field of reading research benefits from the DIER model’s affirmation of the utility of the simple view of reading that acknowledges the relationships between key component skills of literacy, as well as distal factors that have an indirect effect on reading (and writing) skills. In particular, I am interested in the impacts of attentional control on literacy as it relates to students with attention deficits in the secondary school years (as this is my area of practice). The outlined research here is a useful addition to my understanding of how attention impacts literacy and these papers have created a variety of questions around further research and praxis in the area of literacy instruction and intervention with students.

The initial questions that will guide my next steps in professional learning and practice are as follows: 1. What instructional strategies and interventions might impact the effects of attentional deficits and other socioemotional and executive function difficulties for struggling readers at the secondary level? 2. How might literacy instruction specifically be informed by universal design to improve outcomes for students with adhd and other difficulties with attentional control? and 3. How can reading comprehension be improved at the secondary level for students whose literacy skills have long been impacted across the spectrum of component skills as a result of executive dysfunctions? 

Additionally, I look forward to collaborating with colleagues to share the emerging research on DIER and DIEW more generally. In particular, it is noted that at the older grade levels writing skills are substantially more impacted by reading comprehension than word reading. I look forward to sharing this and implementing it by increasing instruction that supports reading comprehension in tandem with subject level writing instruction. I was also struck by the impacts of attention, working memory, and general executive function with regards to both reading and writing. I am hopeful that in better creating environments and instructional strategies that are conducive to improvements in attention, we may be able to support an increase in writing success amongst our secondary students. Broadly, I intend to apply this knowledge of the expanse of both direct and indirect effects on literacy by structuring my secondary level literacy instruction to be informed not just by the simple view of reading (which remains useful and valid) but also the distal variables that have a meaningful yet indirect effect on the success of students with regards to literacy skills.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

Kim, Y.-S. G. (2020). Toward Integrative Reading Science: The Direct and Indirect Effects Model of Reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53(6), 469-491. https://doi-org.ezproxy.viu.ca/10.1177/0022219420908239 

Kim, Y. S. G. (2023). Executive Functions and Morphological Awareness Explain the Shared Variance between Word Reading and Listening Comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 27(5), 451–474. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2023.2195112

Protopapas, A., Simos, P. G., Sideridis, G. D., & Mouzaki, A. (2012). The Components of the Simple View of Reading: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Reading Psychology, 33(3), 217–240. https://doi-org.ezproxy.viu.ca/10.1080/02702711.2010.507626
Reid, E.K, Ahmed, Y., Keller-Margulis, M.A. (2023). Contributions of attentional control, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and reading skills to performance on a fourth-grade state writing test. Journal of School Psychology, 99. https://doi-org.ezproxy.viu.ca/10.1177/0022219420908239

Annotated Bibliography

Introduction

This semester I am undertaking an effort to connect and contrast the theories and roots of second language acquisition, language immersion classrooms, and Indigenous language revitalisation. These were the themes I sought out in designing my professional development program, and for the purposes of this annotated bibliography I have attempted to delve further into each of these areas. Throughout the resources to follow, commonalities include the need for teacher preparation in immersion techniques, the value of language input in the family and community outside of the school setting, and concerns about efficacy and inclusion in both Indigenous and non-Indigenous immersion settings. The research addressed in the areas of Indigenous language revitalisation has a greater focus on cultural and spiritual connection to language, while French immersion research shows a generally more language specific focus.

Annotated Bibliography

Bourgoin, R. (2016). French Immersion “So Why Would You do Something Like That to a Child?”: Issues of Advocacy, Accessibility, and Inclusion. International Journal of Bias, Identity and Diversities in Education, 1(1), 42-58. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJBIDE.2016010104

In this article, Bourgoin considers teacher and parent perspectives on suitability for French Immersion (FI) programs, and benefits of immersion programs. The research is conducted in New Brunswick, Canada, where FI begins in grade 3, following three years of English medium education. Through thematic analysis of interviews with English medium second grade teachers the author finds that these teachers universally recommended only academically advanced students to continue to French Immersion, and considered it a mistake when average or struggling students were placed in the program. This was especially true if a struggling student had a diagnosed learning disability or was identified as having ADHD. Similarly, parents primarily hesitated to enroll students in FI due to a perception that it would make school inherently harder. These concerns from both parents and teachers are noted to be in opposition of the evidence that despite initial lags in literacy due to the language acquisition process, FI does not have detrimental impacts on learning outcomes even for struggling students. In fact, the article notes they may be students most in need of the cognitive benefits of bilingualism. While French Immersion has a long established reputation as an elitist environment, the article notes (and I agree) that all types of students can thrive in French Immersion, and all types of students are deserving of the benefits of bilingualism, including cognitive benefits, feelings of self-efficacy, and increased opportunities in further education and employment.

True inclusion in FI has always been an area of passion for me. Now, as I teach within the French immersion program and collaborate within the district with the new Gitxsanimx immersion program, I am especially concerned with inclusion within language immersion settings. I am heartened to see high quality research emphasizing the suitability of the immersion setting even for students with learning disabilities or who are neurodivergent. This will be especially important here in coming years, as all Indigenous children deserve access to their language, not just those children who show an aptitude for academics.

DeJong, D. H. (1998). IS IMMERSION THE KEY TO LANGUAGE RENEWAL? Journal of American Indian Education, 37(3), 31–46. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24398383

This is an older article – written in 1998, but many of the concerns and proposed solutions remain relevant, so I have included it. Dejong opens by contextualising the state of endangered Indigenous languages in North America, notably, the state of these languages continues to decline, though some have successfully slowed this decline or stabilised. The article describes themes brought forward at a symposium on stabilizing Indigenous languages, including concerns, myths, and expert opinions on the need for collaboration between immersion in schools and the home. Language immersion is proposed not as an independent solution, but as a major paradigm shift to support broader Indigenous Language Revitalisation efforts. Of note, bilingual education (as opposed to full immersion) is written off entirely, with several examples given of nations that attempted this method and found it entirely ineffectual. DeJong reviews a variety of so-called immersion models, summarizing, “Immersion creates rich, authentic and sustained contexts when the target language is used.”  Partial immersion (or bilingual education) does not result in better English language outcomes, just poorer target language outcomes. In contrast, as will be emphasized throughout the resources evaluated herein, English outcomes in full immersion students were often higher than those of their monolingual English speaking peers. Dejong ends by emphasizing the still very relevant need for institutional support to create immersion programs, and the essential nature of supports for language use in the home to create truly fluent Indigenous language speakers.

In some ways, I find it disheartening that thirty years after the original writing of this article, the recommendations remain deeply relevant. With that said, it is helpful to know that many parts of the solutions are known, and thus it is possible that adequate advocacy and systemic support could result in substantial positive outcomes. One note that I find particularly relevant as a French Immersion teacher and mother is the need for incorporation of language outside the classroom to create true fluency. I know that this has been relatively successful in the Hawaiian medium system, but it is a struggle in the French Immersion context generally, and has been a struggle for Indigenous language programs where I live here on Gitxsan territory.

Haj-Broussard, M., Olson Beal, H.K., Boudreaux, N. (2017). Relating French Immersion Teacher Practices to Better Student Oral Production. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 73(3), 319-342. 

In this article, the authors assess the practices of seven kindergarten French Immersion teachers in Louisiana, and the resultant oral language production of their students. They note that research into language acquisition generally supports a long listening or receptive language period prior to requiring language production, however due to content requirements this is often not possible in French Immersion contexts. In contrast, they note that due to content requirements, there is an “authentic need” for the language, which is an established factor in successful acquisition as well. Prior research supports the use of questions, offered answers, feedback cues to remain in the target language, and elicitive teacher comments. In this particular assessment, three contexts were evaluated: circle time, direct instruction, and center time. One teacher had substantially higher rates of students producing intermediate or advanced sentence structures – this teacher was also the only teacher specifically trained in foreign language education, while the remaining teachers were simply elementary trained teachers fluent in French. Notable outcomes included no French production during center time (students were silent or spoke English), and increased language use as a result of “rituals” within circle time. This research in particular affirmed the benefits of open ended questions, scaffolding of phrases where students change out some but not all words to create new meanings, and the use of emotional or humorous personal language. The authors also warn to avoid translation at all costs, which is of course easier said than done.

I found this article to be extremely practical and appreciated the focus on specific practices of effective language instruction. While I teach secondary immersion, there are aspects of this article that even I will be able to implement. One thing I noted in particular was that it is assumed that the necessary “listening” phase cannot be completed. I am endeavouring, in keeping with Krashen’s work, to increase the highly compelling comprehensible input my students receive in my FI classroom this year.

McCarty, T. L., Noguera, J., Lee, T. S., & Nicholas, S. E. (2021). “A viable path for education”—indigenous-language immersion and sustainable self-determination. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 20(5), 340–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2021.1957681

The authors of this paper open by framing Indigenous Language Immersion (ILI) programs as decolonial and anticolonial work. They go on to establish ILI as part of a broad network of language revitalisation work with many roots and even more branches and blossoms growing from them. They consider three particular examples, all within the settler nation of the United States of America – these examples are the Mohawk, the Navajo, and the Hawaiian languages. In all of these cases, the early ILI programs were a response not just to language decline, but to active oppression by the settler state, and resultant Indigenous resistance movements. The authors note that for this reason and many others, ILI programs emphasize not just “language learning” in a vacuum, but the connection of the language with culture, community, nationhood, and sovereignty. In addition, the authors note that in the three considered examples, ILI programs consistently create not just some level of Indigenous language fluency, but also English academic and literacy achievement as strong as or stronger than that of English medium peers. One noted practice of culturally responsive education in ILI is a school that offers a receiving and releasing ceremony: at the start of year parents describe the child’s gifts, at the end of the year the teacher says what they did to cultivate those gifts and how they may contribute them back to the community. The authors end by summarising the roots and branches of ILI generally, in hopes of supporting further implementation of Indigenous language medium education.

I appreciated the focus on ILI programs as being culturally rooted and connected to community and sovereignty. While some examples of this are given, I would be interested to better understand how these areas are taught through the language medium, and how the language is taught through these core values. 

McIvor, O. (2013). Protective effects of language learning, use and culture on the health and well-being of Indigenous people in Canada. Proceedings of the 17th FEL Conference. FEL XVII: Endangered Languages Beyond Boundaries: Community Connections, Collaborative Approaches and Cross-Disciplinary Research, Ottawa, ON (pp. 123-131). Foundation for Endangered Languages in association with Carleton University.

McIvor begins this article by establishing the state of language decline in Indigenous languages. She goes on to connect language to overall health and wellbeing. This connection comes from the connection of language to both land and culture, and the established links that the land and culture share with the physical, mental, and spiritual health of Indigenous peoples. Notably, these links can be attributed at least in part to access to and knowledge of traditional foods, medicines, and movement based cultural activities. McIvor goes on to establish that cultural continuity is a major factor in reducing risk of youth suicides in Indigenous communities – in particular high levels of language knowledge (defined as most members of the community having conversational fluency or higher) results in suicide rates lower than both Indigenous and non-Indigenous averages in the province of BC. The author goes on to hypothesise that these outcomes relate to language as a medium of cultural knowledge and stories, and thus positions the risk of language loss as being a broad existential risk to Indigenous peoples. Several recommendations are given with regards to sustaining Indigenous languages, including: taking the crisis seriously, providing adequate funding, making Indigenous languages “co-official languages”, prioritising communication and interaction in Indigenous languages, and creating a national organisation to advocate for Indigenous languages. The article ends with a firm message that “the time is now,” for the essential work of Indigenous language revitalisation.

I have a deep sense of respect for Dr. McIvor’s work as she has been involved with an incredible range of Indigenous language revitalisation initiatives and typically supports community-driven “boots on the ground” type revitalisation efforts. A great deal of my passion for language revitalisation is rooted in my understanding of the benefits she has outlined in this article – the overall health and wellbeing of Indigenous peoples. These outcomes are often poor in “canada” as a result of systemic injustice, and I am hopeful that through language and culture revitalisation, the young people I work with, and my own children, may experience greater wellbeing and safety in their community.

Morcom, L. A., & Roy, S. (2017). Is early immersion effective for Aboriginal language acquisition? A case study from an Anishinaabemowin kindergarten. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(5), 551–563. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2017.1281217

This case study from a relatively small Anishinaabemowin immersion kindergarten class evaluates the efficacy of immersion programming in a specifically Indigenous context. The study looked at language skills using both contrived and natural environments. The contrived environments allow for more data based assessments (for example, how many colours could students identify accurately at the end of junior and senior kindergarten). In contrast, the more natural assessment was primarily based on teacher observation, which allows for evaluation of more flexible language skills, but may be seen as less objective. Both assessments found the program to be effective at increasing Anishinaabemowin language skills, with scores increasing from the start of programming, to the end of junior kindergarten, and again to the end of senior kindergarten. Of note, the sample size was small and extremely contextual, and the authors concede that the results aren’t necessarily generalisable. Still, the outcome is promising for Indigenous communities seeking to increase fluency in children. Of note, measures of cultural pride also increased as a result of the program.

This case study was a helpful preview of how the early years of the Gitxsanimx immersion program may look for my own child. I am interested to see how our local program goes about the assessment process, and look forward to sharing this framework with the team that is building that program. I will also be encouraging my French immersion colleagues here to consider how these two realms of assessment might be used in our classrooms.

Ó Ceallaigh, T. J., Hourigan, M., & Leavy, A. (2018). Developing potentiality: pre-service elementary teachers as learners of language immersion teaching. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 24(4), 515–532. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1489779

In this article, Ó Ceallaigh considers the essential question of how pre-service Irish Medium Immersion (IMI) teachers are prepared to teach content through language and vice versa in gaelscoileanna (IMI schools). Ó Ceallaigh begins by establishing the IMI context, with Irish being a minority Indigenous language in Ireland and Northern Ireland, and IMI schools offering early total immersion. He notes that Irish language use is in decline, even in gaeltachts (Irish speaking regions of Ireland), and that the majority of gaelscoileanna students only hear Irish in the classroom. Participants in this research stated they felt their teacher education experience had not prepared them for the demands of teaching within the IMI context despite language fluency. The method for the research presented in this article is a “lesson study” approach, with pre-service teachers considering potential use of both content-compatible and content-obligatory language (the former being language that is more general but supportive of the content learning, while the latter is highly specific to the concepts being taught – in this case geometry). This approach was found to be generally supportive of increased IMI teaching confidence, and recommendations given included proactive planning for language inclusion in content learning, balanced instruction that emphasizes both elements of a lesson, and deliberate reflection as part of language teaching praxis. In a final note, it is strongly recommended that teacher education in Ireland create a program specifically focused on the skills required of gaelscoileanna educators.

The Irish language revitalisation efforts have long been seen as one of a handful of very successful language revitalisation efforts based in language medium schooling. It is interesting to read that they face many of the same difficulties I see as a French immersion teacher (for instance language and content fluency, but minimal instruction in how to teach the language through content and vice versa). Gaeilge (the Irish language) also seems to share challenges with other Indigenous language immersion efforts, including the decline of language use in the home, even in regions that have historically been seen as “safe” from language decline. 

Vanderveen, T.M. (2015). Life After French Immersion: Expectations, Motivations, and Outcomes of Secondary School French Immersion Programs in the Greater Toronto Area [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. York University.

This doctoral dissertation assessed the congruence (or incongruence) of expectations and outcomes for parents of French Immersion students, students in the high school years of French Immersion, and French Immersion graduates – as compared to statistical outcomes of further employment and education for French Immersion graduates. A significant theme of the early part of the dissertation is the author’s difficulties with confidence in colloquial French, despite being a graduate of French Immersion as well as French teacher’s college – and the research that shows these hesitancies in productive French are common amongst French Immersion grads, who typically resist situations where they must use their second language after high school. The author overviews the history of French Immersion, and the theoretical underpinnings of the model. Motivations for the creation of French Immersion programs, along with motivations for participation in those programs, are noted to be similar – bilingualism and job opportunities being high amongst them. Many benefits are noted in outcomes of French Immersion – increased metalinguistic skills, stronger overall academic performance, cognitive advantages – however it is noted that French Immersion students rarely achieve “native-like proficiency,” with particularly weak oral grammatical competence. Of note, most students reported never needing to use the language outside of the classroom. On a personal note, I am myself a graduate of French Immersion, but I had both social and family connections with whom I spoke French in my daily life. 

An emphasis seen in many of the articles I’ve considered for this review that relate to Indigenous Language Immersion, is the need for input in the home and family in order to obtain true fluency. I believe this is one of the great errors of French Immersion programming, often parents are told not to worry if they don’t know any French as school will take care of it – this thesis and a variety of other language acquisition research supports that parents should instead be counseled on how to incorporate the language in the home and encourage French language social and community connections for FI students. 

Conclusion

While there are notably shared theoretical underpinnings in Indigenous and non-Indigenous immersion education, there are also substantial differences in both root and practice. Indigenous language revitalisation efforts can and do make use of theory and research on language acquisition techniques and methods for eliciting language production and teaching in and through a language. With that said, there is also a notable focus on wellness, culture, community, sovereignty, and nationhood in the literature on Indigenous language medium education that is absent in the literature on French immersion settings. Some challenges are faced across settings, for instance difficulties in preparing teachers with appropriate immersion techniques, and a lack of language input outside the classroom. Other challenges are specific to Indigenous language or French immersion settings – difficulties finding fluent speakers being an example in the former, and a lack of meaningful inclusion being an example in the latter. The research collected here shows a focus on more specific instructional practices within the French immersion context, which is helpful in informing my own instructional practices. Indigenous language immersion literature reviewed was more comprehensive with regards to creating a culturally affirming language immersion setting, an approach French immersion programs may wish to learn from as well. As expected, Second Language Acquisition, Indigenous Language Revitalisation, and Immersion have a mix of shared, differing, and at times opposing methodologies, goals, and origins. Within the range of themes that came through in this review, there is a great deal to consider with regards to my daily practise as a French immersion teacher as well as my own family language context.